This page helps you write clear, complete sentences. It also addresses common sentence problems. Read it if your feedback includes comments such as 'awkward phrasing', 'unclear writing', or 'sentence structure' on your work.

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Essential guidance

 

What a sentence needs

Every sentence needs four things:

  • It starts with a capital letter.
  • It has a subject (the person or thing it is about) and a verb (the action or state, for example, 'ran', 'is', or 'seems').
  • It ends with a full stop, question mark, or exclamation mark.
  • It makes sense on its own; a reader could understand it without needing anything else.

 

A group of words that is missing one or more of these things is called a fragment.

 

 

Incomplete sentences (fragments)

Most incomplete sentences are missing a main clause. A clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb. The main clause is independent — it works as a sentence on its own.

A sentence can contain multiple clauses but has only one main clause. Other clauses are dependent — they rely on the main clause to make sense. Words like 'although', 'when', 'since', 'while', 'if', and 'unless' signal that a dependent clause is coming. Without a main clause, a dependent clause is a fragment (an incomplete sentence).

 

Clear

'Although the findings were limited, they pointed to a clear pattern.'

 

Fragment

'Although the findings were limited.'

 

The fragment in the example above doesn’t make sense on its own. The reader is left waiting for the main point.

 

 

Keeping sentences clear

 

Avoid overloading your sentences

A sentence can contain more than one idea, but it becomes harder to read when it tries to do too much. An overloaded sentence loses the reader. Try one or more of these tests to check if your sentence is overloaded.

 

Is my sentence overloaded?
  • Count the joining words (conjunctions)

    Words like 'and', 'but', 'although', 'which', and 'when' join ideas together. If your sentence contains more than two of these, consider splitting it.
  • Count the lines

    If your sentence runs to more than two lines, it may be doing too much.
  • Read it aloud

    If you run out of breath before the end, the sentence is probably too long.
  • Cover it up

    Read the sentence, then cover it and try to summarise it in a few words. If you can't, it may contain too many ideas.

 

Overload test examples

Original text

The study examined patient outcomes and the researchers also considered cost implications and previous literature was reviewed to contextualise the findings.

 

Test results

  • Conjunctions: 'and' appears twice. At the limit.
  • Lines: This sentence would run approximately 2 lines. Marginal pass.
  • Read aloud: Manageable for most readers.
  • Cover it up: 3 separate activities are described. This would be difficult to summarise quickly.

 

Overall, this is probably okay but could be better.

 

Clearer

The study examined patient outcomes. The researchers also considered cost implications and reviewed previous literature for context.

Original text

The study examined patient outcomes and the researchers also considered cost implications, although the data collection process had faced several delays because the ethical approval had taken longer than expected.

 

Test results

  • Conjunctions: 'and', 'although', 'because' – three. Fail.
  • Lines: This sentence would be approximately 3 lines. Fail.
  • Read aloud: Most readers would struggle.
  • Cover it up: 4 separate points are described. This would be hard to summarise.

 

This version needs to be revised.

 

Clearer

The study examined patient outcomes and the researchers considered cost implications. The data collection process faced several delays, as ethical approval took longer than expected.

Original text

The study examined patient outcomes and the researchers also considered cost implications, although the data collection process had faced several delays because the ethical approval had taken longer than expected, which meant that some of the findings were based on a smaller sample than had originally been planned.

 

Test results

  • Conjunctions: 'and', 'although', 'because', 'which' – 4. Fail.
  • Lines: This sentence would be 4 or more lines. Fail.
  • Read aloud: Very difficult to read without pausing for breath.
  • Cover it up: 5 separate points are described. This would be very difficult to summarise.

 

This version definitely doesn’t work as a clear sentence.

 

Clearer

The study examined patient outcomes and the researchers considered cost implications. The data collection process faced several delays, as ethical approval took longer than expected. As a result, some findings were based on a smaller sample than planned.

 

 

Keep the subject and verb close together

Place the subject and verb near each other. If too many phrases separate them, the sentence is hard to follow. Move extra detail to the end of the sentence where possible.

 

Clear

'The researchers completed the study, despite significant funding constraints and delays caused by ethical approval processes.'

 

Unclear

'The researchers, despite facing significant funding constraints and delays caused by ethical approval processes, completed the study.'

 

Subject: 'The researchers'

Verb: 'completed'

 

 

Name what you refer to

Words like 'this', 'that', 'these', and 'it' must refer to something specific. If the reference is unclear, name it directly.

 

Clear

'This result shows the method was flawed.'

 

Unclear

'This shows the method was flawed.'

 

 

Connecting sentences

 

Using connectors and avoiding run-ons

Connectors (also called linking words) show how ideas relate to each other:

  • Adding: and, also
  • Contrasting: but, although
  • Cause or reason: because, since
  • Result: so, therefore

 

Choose connectors that match the relationship between your ideas. The wrong connector changes your meaning.

A comma alone is not enough to join 2 complete ideas. This is called a comma splice. Either add a connector or split them into2 sentences. When in doubt, split rather than join.

 

Clear

'The report was late because the data had not been collected.'

 

Comma splice

'The report was late, the data had not been collected.'

 

 

Advanced guidance

Academic texts you read may use long, complex sentences. However, longer sentences don't make writing more academic. Clear writing is better writing.

Once you can write complete, focused sentences, the next step is to develop more control over structure. This section introduces techniques for writing more precise, varied, and controlled sentences. These techniques take time to develop so return to this section as your skills grow.

 

Building sentences with clauses

A sentence can contain more than one clause. Dependent clauses only play a supporting role; every dependent clause needs an independent clause to complete it. For an introduction to clauses, go to Incomplete sentences above.

Figures 1, 2 and 3 below show how independent and dependent clauses work together in a complete sentence. Note that the dependent clause does not always come second.

 

 

The sentence 'She stayed inside because it was raining.' The words 'She stayed inside' are labelled 'Independent/main clause' with a purple bracket. The words 'because it was raining' are labelled 'Dependent clause' with a blue bracket.

Figure 1. Independent clause followed by dependent clause.

 

 

The sentence 'The results were promising, even though the sample size was small.' The words 'The results were promising' are labelled 'Independent/main clause' with a purple bracket. The words 'even though the sample size was small' are labelled 'Dependent clause' with a blue bracket.

Figure 2. Independent clause followed by dependent clause.

 

 

The sentence 'Although the findings were limited, they pointed to a clear pattern.' The words 'Although the findings were limited' are labelled 'Dependent clause' with a blue bracket. The words 'they pointed to a clear pattern' are labelled 'Independent/main clause' with a purple bracket.

Figure 3. Dependent clause followed by independent clause.

 

 

Expanding sentences with clauses

You can use dependent clauses to add more detail to your sentences. Dependent clauses can show:

  • Contrast: although, though, whereas
  • Cause or reason: because, since
  • Time: when, after, before
  • Condition: if, unless

 

The examples below show how dependent clauses add detail to a sentence.

  • Reason

    The current value of the research is limited because it was undertaken more than 10 years ago.

  • Time

    When the participants touched the screen, their response time was recorded.

  • Contrast

    Although the study was inconclusive, the findings indicated a relationship between sleep quality and academic attainment.

 

 

Adding descriptive detail

Descriptive words and phrases must be placed close to the word they describe. If they're too far away, or if they interrupt the subject and verb, the sentence becomes hard to follow.

 

Clear

'The report examined the effects of the policy on low-income households.'

 

Unclear

'The report examined the effects on low-income households of the policy.'

 

The words 'effects of the policy' belong together but have been separated, making the sentence harder to follow.

Keep descriptive phrases close to the words they describe.

 

 

Using precise connectors

Academic writing often requires more precise connectors to express complex relationships between ideas. Choose connectors that clearly show the relationship between ideas. Avoid using several connectors together.

  • Adding

    moreover, additionally, furthermore

  • Emphasising

    in fact, indeed

  • Contrasting

    however, nevertheless, on the other hand

  • Showing results

    consequently, therefore, as a result

  • Explaining

    for example, for instance

  • Qualifying (limiting the strength of a claim)

    in some cases, to some extent

  • Concession (acknowledging a point before countering it)

    although, even so, admittedly, despite this, that said

 

 

Emphasis and sentence structure

Sentences flow most naturally when they move from familiar information to new information. Start each sentence with something the reader already knows from the previous sentence, then introduce the new point at the end.

 

The example below shows how information introduced as new in one sentence becomes the known information that starts the next sentence.

 

Known-to-new example

People's needs and desires differ, but certain basic needs are shared across all individuals. These shared needs were categorised by Maslow (1954) into a hierarchy, from basic survival needs to psychological ones. Maslow's hierarchy has been criticised for being based on a narrow and unrepresentative sample (Mittelman, 1991).

Known New
People's needs and desires differ, but certain basic needs are shared across all individuals.
These shared needs were categorised by Maslow (1954) into a hierarchy, from basic survival needs to psychological ones.
Maslow's hierarchy has been criticised for being based on a narrow and unrepresentative sample (Mittelman, 1991).

Maslow, A. H. (1954). Motivation and personality. Harper.

Mittelman, W. (1991). Maslow's study of self-actualization: A reinterpretation. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 31(1), 114–135. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167891311010

 

The referencing style used here is APA 7. Your course may require a different referencing system. Check your assignment brief or module guidance to confirm which style applies to you.

 

The end of a sentence is its strongest position. Placing new information there gives it emphasis and creates a natural link to the next sentence.

Introductory phrases should set up the main idea that follows, not distract from it.

For guidance on connecting ideas across sentences and paragraphs, go to Signposting.

 

 

Sentence variety and rhythm

A mix of sentence lengths keeps writing readable. Vary your sentence length — shorter sentences keep the reader's attention, while longer sentences allow for more detail, but avoid using several long or short sentences together.

 

More effective

'The method was effective. It reduced processing time by 40%, which allowed the team to meet the deadline despite the earlier delays.'

 

Less effective

'The method was effective. It reduced processing time by 40%. The team met the deadline. This was despite earlier delays.'

 

 

Page last edited: 27 August 2026
Next review due: 7 August 2029